Appendix A: Comparative and Fossil Data Tables

Table 1: Cranial Capacities and Dates for Selected Fossil Specimens (Modified Slightly from Falk 1987a)

SPECIMEN	Presumed species designation	TIME RANGE (Millions of Years Ago)	CRANIAL CAPACITY (cm3)	dating references	cranial capacity references
AL 333-45	A. afarensis	2.9-3.2	493	Boaz et al. 1982	Holloway 1983b
AL 162-28	A. afarensis	2.9-3.2	375	Boaz et al. 1982	Holloway 1983b Falk 1983
AL 333-105	A. afarensis	2.9-3.2	343	Boaz et al. 1982	Holloway 1983b Falk 1987a
MLD 37/38	A. africauns	2.8	435	Tobias 1980	Holloway 1983b
STS 60	A. africanus	2.4-2.8	428	Vrba 1985	Holloway 1983b
STS 5	A. africanus	2.4-2.8	485	Vrba 1985	Holloway 1983b
WT 17000	A. aethiopicus	2.55	410	Walker et al. 1986	Walker et al. 1986
KNM-ER 1470	H. habilis	2	752	Cronin et al. 1981	Holloway 1983b
OH 7	H. habilis	1.9	675	Cronin et al. 1981	Holloway 1983b, Tobias 1985, Falk 1987a
OH 13	H. habilis	1.9	655	Cronin et al. 1981	Holloway 1983b, Tobias 1985, Vaisnys et al. 1984, Falk 1987a
OH 5	A. boisei	1.8	530	Cronin et al. 1981	Tobias 1967
KNM-ER 1813	A. africanus (?)	1.8	510	Cronin et al. 1981	Holloway 1983b
KNM-ER 407	A. boisei	1.64-1.88	508	Brown et al. 1985 Leakey & Leakey 1978	Holloway 1983b
KNM-ER 732	A. boisei	1.64-1.88	500	Brown et al. 1985 Leakey & Leakey 1978	Holloway 1983b
KNM-ER 406	A. boisei	1.64-1.88	510	Leakey & Walker 1976	Holloway 1983b
KNM-ER 3733	H. erectus	1.64-1.88	848	Leakey & Walker 1976	Holloway 1983b
SK 1585	A. robustus	1.6-1.8	530	Vrba 1985	Holloway 1983b

Table 1 (continued)

SPECIMEN	Presumed species designation	TIME RANGE (Millions of Years Ago)	CRANIAL CAPACITY (cm3)	dating references	cranial capacity references
KNM-ER 1805	A. africanus (?)	1.64	582	Brown et al. 1985 Leakey & Leakey 1978	Holloway 1983b
TAUNG	A. africanus	1.0-2.0	412	Lewin 1985	Holloway 1983b
OH 9	H. erectus	1.3	1067	Cronin et al. 1981	Holloway 1983b
Homo erectus javanicus (Trinil & Sangiran, Java)		0.6-1.6	815-1059	Hofman 1983a	Holloway 1983b
Homo erectus pekinensis (Zhoukoudian, China)		0.5-0.7	915-1225	Hofman 1983a	Weidenreich 1943
Homo erectus soloensis (Ngandong, Java)		0.46-0.8	1013-1250	Hofman 1983a	Holloway 1980, 1983b
Homo sapiens (European pre-Würm)		0.1-0.3	1170-1460	Hofman 1983a	Hofman 1983a, (from Parenti 1973)
Neanderthal		0.04-0.07	1245-1740	Hofman 1983a	Holloway 1985, Olivier & Tissier 1975
Homo sapiens (European Würm)		0.04	1293-1748	Hofman 1983a	Hofman 1983a
Homo sapiens sapiens		0	1156-1775		Hofman 1983a,
Pan troglodytes		0	282-500		Tobias 1971

Table 2: Brain sizes, body sizes, encephalization quotients, and "extra brain mass" in 95 mammals (including 52 primates) and 1 reptile.a

Higher taxonb	Species	common name	N	body size (kg)	brain (g)	EQc	Extra mass (g)d	source
Hominoidea	Homo sapiens	human	3510	66.24	1378.32	5.07	1106.64	1
	Pan troglodytes	chimpanzee	*	53.70	398.60	1.72	166.98	1
	Gorilla gorilla	gorilla	*	120.50	512.92	1.20	84.82	1
	Pongo pygmaeus	orangutan	*	62.75	419.01	1.61	158.28	1
	Hylobates agilis	agile gibbon	12	5.56	83.63	2.02	42.28	2
	Hylobates mulleri	Müller's gibbon	7	5.93	94.70	2.18	51.29	2
	Hylobates lar	common gibbon	1	5.70	97.51	2.32	55.39	3
Cercopithecoidea	Papio papio	Guinea baboon	12	9.88	155.44	2.43	91.45	4
	Macaca nemestrina	pigtail macaque	8	4.89	108.87	2.91	71.39	2
	Macaca cynomolg.	macaque	9	1.50	61.85	4.04	46.55	2
	Presbytis entellus	langur	1	21.32	119.40	1.04	4.62	5
	Macaca mulatta	rhesus monkey	1	7.80	87.90	1.64	34.44	3
	Cercocebus albigena	white-cheeked mangabey	1	7.90	97.60	1.81	43.63	3
	Papio anubis	olive baboon	2	25.00	190.96	1.47	61.41	3
	Cercopithecus mitis	diademed monkey	1	6.30	70.56	1.55	25.12	3
	Cercopithecus ascanius	Schmidt's guenon	1	3.40	63.51	2.23	35.07	3
	Cercopithecus talapoin	talapoin monkey	2	1.20	37.78	2.93	24.89	3

Table 2: (continued)

Higher taxonb	Species	common name	N	body size (kg)	brain (g)	EQc	Extra mass (g)d	source
Cercopithecoidea (continued)	Erythrocebus patas	patas monkey	2	7.80	103.17	1.93	49.71	3
	Pygathrix nemaeus	Douc langur	1	7.50	72.53	1.40	20.64	3
	Nasalis larvatus	Proboscis monkey	1	14.00	92.80	1.11	9.42	3
	Colobus badius	red colobus	2	7.00	73.82	1.50	24.58	3
Ceboidea	Callithrix jacchus	common marmoset	4	.28	7.24	1.70	2.98	3
	Cebuella pygmaea	Pygmy marmoset	2	.14	4.30	1.71	1.78	3
	Saguinus oedipus	cotton-top tamarin	3	.38	9.54	1.77	4.16	3
	Saguinus tamarin	red-handed tamarin	2	.34	9.57	1.94	4.63	3
	Callimico goeldii	Goeldi's marmoset	1	.48	10.51	1.64	4.09	3
	Aotus trivirgatus	Northern night monkey	5	.83	16.20	1.66	6.46	3
	Callicebus moloch	dusky titi	2	.90	17.94	1.73	7.59	3
	Pithcia monacha	monk saki	2	1.50	32.87	2.15	17.60	3
	Alouatta sp.	howler monkey	2	6.40	49.01	1.07	3.02	3
	Ateles geoffroyi	spider monkey	1	8.00	101.03	1.85	46.54	3
	Lagothrix lagotricha	common wooly monkey	3	5.20	95.50	2.43	56.22	3
	Cebus sp.	capuchin	2	3.10	66.94	2.52	40.43	3
	Saimiri sciureus	common squirrel monkey	1	.66	22.57	2.76	14.39	3
Prosimii	Cheirogaleus major	greater dwarf lemur	2	.45	6.37	1.04	.26	3
	Cheirogaleus medius	tat-tailed dwarf lemur	2	.18	2.96	.98	-.05	3

Table 2: (continued)

Higher taxonb	Species	common name	N	body size (kg)	brain (g)	EQc	Extra mass (g)d	source
Prosimii (continued)	Microcebus murinus	lesser mouse lemur	6	.05	1.68	1.38	.46	3
	Lepilemur ruficudatus	weasel-lemur	3	.92	7.18	.68	-3.31	3
	Lemur fulvus	brown lemur	3	1.40	22.11	1.53	7.62	3
	Lemur variegatus	ruffled lemur	1	3.00	29.71	1.15	3.85	3
	Avahi l. laniger	wolly lemur	2	1.29	9.80	.72	-3.78	3
	Avahi l. occidentalis	wolly lemur	2	.86	9.12	.91	-.88	3
	Propithecus verreauxi	Verreaux's sifaka	2	3.48	25.19	.87	-3.75	3
	Indri Indri	idri	2	6.25	36.29	.80	-8.89	3
	Daubentonia madagasc.	aye aye	1	2.80	42.61	1.74	18.07	3
	Loris tardigradus	slender loris	1	.32	6.27	1.32	1.53	3
	Nycticebus coucang	slow loris	2	.80	11.76	1.24	2.29	3
	Perodicticus potto	potto gibbon	2	1.15	13.21	1.06	.73	3
	Galago crassicaudatus	bush baby	2	.85	9.67	.97	-.25	3
	Galago demidovii	Demidoff's galago	2	.08	3.20	1.93	1.54	3
	Galago senegalensis	northern lesser bushbaby	1	.19	4.51	1.44	1.39	3
	Tarsius sp.	tarsier	1	.13	3.39	1.47	1.08	3
Cetacea	Tursiops truncatus	bottlenose dolphin	9	119.96	1535.00	3.60	1108.35	6
	Physeter macrocephalus	sperm whale	2	33750.00	8550.00	.28	-22437.38	6
	Balaenoptera musculus	blue whale	1	58059.00	6800.00	.15	-40031.80	7

Table 2: (continued)

Higher taxonb	Species	common name	N	body size (kg)	brain (g)	EQc	Extra mass (g)d	source
Cetacea (continued)	Megaptera nodosa	humpback whale	3	39311.33	6439.00	.18	-28376.45	7
	Cephalorhynchus commersonii	Commerson's dolphin	3	43.00	732.00	3.74	536.37	8
	Delphinus delphis	common dolphin	5	78.00	718.58	2.34	410.98	8
	Globicephala macrorhynchus	short-finned pilot whale	1	386.00	2466.00	2.38	1428.93	8
	Grampus griseus	Risso's dolphin	1	282.00	1738.00	2.13	921.06	8
	Lissodelphis borealis	Northern right whale dolphin	1	73.00	1162.00	3.97	869.50	8
	Lagenorhynchus obliquidens	Pacific white-sided dolphin	2	117.50	1217.50	2.90	797.52	8
	Orcinus orca	killer whale	6	3046.00	6368.00	1.28	1383.35	8
	Pseudorca crassidens	false killer whale	2	460.50	4444.50	3.75	3258.58	8
	Steno bredanensis	rough-toothed dolphin	2	91.00	1539.00	4.45	1193.16	8
	Tursiops truncatus	bottlenose dolphin	11	188.76	1499.38	2.49	897.24	8
Proboscidea	Loxodonta africana	African elephant	1	6654.00	5712.00	.63	-3314.99	7
Artiodactyla	Syncerus caffer	African buffalo	1	759.00	560.00	.32	-1173.74	7
	Rangifer arcticus	caribou	3	100.17	292.00	.78	-80.02	7
	Hippopotamus amphibius	hippopotamus	1	1351.00	723.00	.27	-1964.19	7
	Phacochoerus aethiopicus	warthog	1	65.32	125.00	.47	-143.80	7
	Gnu tauinus	wildebeest	2	212.07	450.50	.68	-207.35	7
Sirenia	Trichechus manatus	manatee	1	424.00	351.00	.32	-762.78	7

Table 2: (continued)

Higher taxonb	Species	common name	N	body size (kg)	brain (g)	EQc	Extra mass (g)d	source
Carnivora	Felis tigris	tiger	2	184.50	263.50	.45	-327.32	7
	Felis leo	lion	7	142.82	240.60	.49	-243.78	7
	Thalarctos maritimus	polar bear	1	317.50	507.00	.57	-386.97	7
	Canis latrans	coyote	1	8.51	84.24	1.47	27.13	7
	Felis onca	jaguar	1	34.47	147.00	.89	-18.37	7
	Procyon lotor	raccoon	3	4.30	39.86	1.17	5.87	7
	Canis lupus	wolf	1	22.68	119.00	.99	-1.31	7
Pinnepedia	Odobenus rosmarus	walrus	1	667.00	1126.00	.72	-445.58	7
	Phoca hispida	ringed seal	5	39.72	253.00	1.37	68.82	7
Edentata	Tamaduas tetradactyla	anteater	2	3.69	25.00	.83	-5.28	7
	Dasypus novemcinctus	armadillo	10	3.40	7.50	.26	-20.95	7
Insectivora	Blarina brevicauda	Northern short-tailed shrew	2	.02	.35	.67	-.17	7
Scandentia	Tupaia glis	Common tree shrew	20	.17	3.00	1.03	.08	3
	Tupaia minor	Pygmy tree shrew	2	.07	2.43	1.63	.94	3
	Urogale everetti	Philipine tree shrew	1	.28	4.00	.95	-.21	3
Chiroptera	Desmodus rotundus	vampire bat	5	.03	.94	1.26	.19	7
Rodentia	Dasyprocta punctata	brown agouti	2	3.17	18.34	.68	-8.64	7
	Hydrochoerus isthimius	capybara	2	27.67	52.21	.37	-87.73	7
	Cavia cutleri	guinea pig	102	.21	3.30	.95	-.19	7

Table 2: (continued)

Higher taxonb	Species	common name	N	body size (kg)	brain (g)	EQc	Extra mass (g)d	source
Rodentia (continued)	Zapus hudsonicus	jumping mouse	4	.02	.61	1.19	.10	7
	Erethizo dorsatus	porcupine	3	3.07	20.43	.78	-5.87	7
	Rattus norvegicus	norway rat	3	.24	1.96	.52	-1.81	7
Marsupialia	Didelphis marsupialis	opposum	4	1.15	4.80	.39	-7.65	7
Reptilia	Alligator mississippiensis	alligator	3	120.70	9.94	.02	-418.71	7

aWhenever possible, data from both male and female specimens were used. In such cases, the species values were calculated as the mean of male and female means (not the overall mean ignoring sex).

bClass level taxa are underlined in bold (e.g., Reptilia), Orders are underlined only (Marsupialia), and superfamilies and suborders are in plain text (Hominoidea).

cThe relative amount of brain in relation to the average mammal of its body size, based on Martin's (1981) brain/body prediction equation for mammals (e.g., a value of .50 means the species has a brain .50 times the size predicted for a mammal of its body size).

dThe absolute amount of brain tissue (in grams) in relation to the average mammal of its body size, based on Martin's (1981) brain/body prediction equation for mammals (e.g., a value of 10.00 means the species has a brain that is 10.00 grams larger than predicted for a mammal of its body size).

*brain and body size from different studies (see table 3 below for details)

1See table 3 for details and sources. These data are actually not brain weight, but cranial capacity (which is ~5% larger). This makes no meaningful difference to the overall picture.

2Count 1947

3Stephan et al 1981

4Riese and Riese 1952

5Jerison 1973

6Morgane and Jacobs 1972

7Quiring 1950

8Tarpley and Ridgway 1994

Table 3: Estimated cranial capacity and body size of fossil hominids, extant pongids and Homo sapiens.

Fossil hominids:

Taxon	male body weight (kg)	female body weight (kg)	cranial capacity (cm^3) range	body weight ref.	cranial capacity ref.	specimens used for cranial capacity range	specimens used for weight range
Neanderthal	68	53	1740-1245	1	2	high: Amud; low: Saccopastore I.	high: mean of putative males - Le Moustier, Spy I, Spy II, Neanderthal, Skhul IV, V, VI, La Chapelle, La Ferrassie I, Shanidar I, Amud; low: mean of putative females - Tabun I and La Quina.
Homo erectus (China)	57	44	1225-915	3	4	high: Zhoukuodian X low Zhoukuodian III	high: Zhoukuodian I low: Zhoukuodian II
Homo erectus (Java)	57	51	1059-815	3	5	high: Sangiran 12 low: Sangiran 2	high: Trinil I low: Trinil II, III, & V
Homo habilis	51.6	31.5	752- 590	6	7	high: KNM ER 1470 Low: OH 24	high: average of putative males - KNM-ER 1472, 1481, and 3228 low: average of putative females - OH 8 and 35
Australopithecus boisei	48.6	34	530- 500	6	8	high: OH 5 low: KNM ER 732	high: putative male KNM-ER 1464 low: putative female KNM-ER 1500
Australopithecus robustus	40.2	31.9	530	6	7	SK 1585	high: average of putative males - SK 82 and SK 97 low: average of putative females SK 3155 and TM 1517

Table 3: (continued)

Taxon

male body weight (kg)

female body weight (kg)

cranial capacity (cm^3) range

body weight ref.

cranial capacity ref.

specimens used for cranial capacity range

specimens used for weight range

Australopithecus africanus

40.8

30.2

485-

428

high: STS 5

low: STS 60

high: average of putative males - STS 34, STW 99, 389, and 443

low: average of putative females - STS 14, STW 25, 102, 347, 358, 392, and TM 1513

Australopithecus afarensis

44.6

29.3

493-

343

high: AL 333-45

low: AL 333-105

high: average of putative males - AL 333-3, 4, 7, 333w-56, and 333x-26

low: average of putative females - AL 129-1a, b, 288-1, and 333-6

Extant species:

Taxon	male body weight (kg)	female body weight (kg)	male cranial capacity (cm 3)	female cranial capacity (cm 3)	body weight reference	cranial capacity reference
Homo sapiens	72.9	59.6	1516	1341	9	9
Pan troglodytes	60	47.4	399	371	10	11
Gorilla gorilla	169.5	71.5	535	456	10	11
Pongo pygmaeus	87.7	37.8	434	375	10	11

1Mathers and Henneberg 1995 (compiled from Hartwig-Scherer 1992 and Feldesman et al. 1990)

2Holloway 1985 (originally from Olivier and Tissier 1975)

3Hartwig-Scherer 1992

4Weidenreich 1943 (as listed in Parenti 1973)

5Holloway 1981

6McHenry 1992

7Holloway 1983

8Holloway 1983 (KNM ER 732), Tobias 1967 (OH 5)

9weighted average of Dekaban and sadowsky 1978 (21-39 yearolds only) Garby et al. 1992, Ho et al. 1980 (caucasian only), Pakkenberg and Voight (1964, as culled by Holloway 1980). Brain brain size data were reported in grams, and were converted using the formula cc=1.036*g (Hofman 1991) for comparison.

10Kappelman 1996 (from Jungers 1985)

11Tobias 1971